儿童普通感冒与治疗
2018-12-19 11:05:44
★引言 — 普通感冒是一种急性上呼吸道病毒感染,具有自限性,特征为不同程度的打喷嚏、鼻充血和流鼻涕(鼻溢)、咽喉痛、咳嗽、低热、头痛以及不适。普通感冒常为一种轻度的自限性病毒性疾病,一般是由鼻病毒引起。


引言 — 普通感冒是一种急性上呼吸道病毒感染,具有自限性,特征为不同程度的打喷嚏、鼻充血和流鼻涕(鼻溢)、咽喉痛、咳嗽、低热、头痛以及不适。

普通感冒常为一种轻度的自限性病毒性疾病,一般是由鼻病毒引起。照料者教育是治疗的主要方面方法[参考文献1、Pappas DE, Hendley JO. The common cold and decongestant therapy. Pediatr Rev 2011; 32:47.2、Stockwell MS, Catallozzi M, Larson E, et al. Effect of a URI-related educational intervention in early head start on ED visits. Pediatrics 2014; 133:e1233.],美国儿科学会(American academy of pediatrics, AAP)[参考文献3、Use of codeine- and dextromethorphan-containing cough remedies in children. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 1997; 99:918.]、英国国家卫生与保健评价研究院(United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence)[参考文献4、Tan T, Little P, Stokes T, Guideline Development Group. Antibiotic prescribing for self limiting respiratory tract infections in primary care: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2008; 337:a437.5、National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Prescribing of antibiotics for self limiting respiratory tract infections in adults and children in primary care. 2008. (Clinical guideline 69). www.nice.org.uk/guidance/index.jsp?action=download&o=41323 (Accessed on August 31, 2011).]和英国胸科学会(British Thoracic Society)[参考文献6、Shields MD, Bush A, Everard ML, et al. BTS guidelines: Recommendations for the assessment and management of cough in children. Thorax 2008; 63 Suppl 3:iii1.]针对儿童咳嗽评估和处理的指南均推荐这种方法。

除流感病毒外,对于其他引起普通感冒的病毒尚无抗病毒疗法。

预期病程 — 在婴幼儿中,普通感冒的症状通常在疾病的第2-3日达到高峰,然后在10-14日内逐步缓解[参考文献7、Hay AD, Wilson AD. The natural history of acute cough in children aged 0 to 4 years in primary care: a systematic review. Br J Gen Pract 2002; 52:401.8、Pappas DE, Hendley JO, Hayden FG, Winther B. Symptom profile of common colds in school-aged children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008; 27:8.]。在少数儿童中,咳嗽可能会持续,但会在3-4周里稳步减轻。对于较大的儿童和青少年,症状通常在5-7日后消退,有基础肺部疾病或吸烟的患者则需要更长时间[参考文献9、Aronson MD, Weiss ST, Ben RL, Komaroff AL. Association between cigarette smoking and acute respiratory tract illness in young adults. JAMA 1982; 248:181.10、Hendley JO. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of the common cold. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 1998; 9:50.11、Heikkinen T, Järvinen A. The common cold. Lancet 2003; 361:51.]。

再评估的指征 — 如果症状加重(如呼吸或吞咽困难、高热)或超过预期持续时间,可能就需要再次评估。症状加重或持续存在(如,持续咳嗽)可能提示患者发生了并发症,或者需要考虑普通感冒以外的诊断(如,肺炎、百日咳)。

支持治疗 — 对于普通感冒患儿,我们一般推荐使用以下1种或多种干预措施作为一线治疗[参考文献3、Use of codeine- and dextromethorphan-containing cough remedies in children. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 1997; 99:918.12、Bell EA, Tunkel DE. Over-the-counter cough and cold medications in children: are they helpful? Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010; 142:647.13、Kelly LF. Pediatric cough and cold preparations. Pediatr Rev 2004; 25:115.14、Saketkhoo K, Januszkiewicz A, Sackner MA. Effects of drinking hot water, cold water, and chicken soup on nasal mucus velocity and nasal airflow resistance. Chest 1978; 74:408.15、World Health Organization. Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children, 2001. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf (Accessed on August 31, 2011).16、Parental instruction sheets. The common cold. In: Textbook of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, 6th, Fleisher GR, Ludwig S (Eds), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2010. p.1894.]。虽然这些干预措施大多数尚未在随机试验中得到研究,但其相对廉价,且不太可能有害[参考文献13、Kelly LF. Pediatric cough and cold preparations. Pediatr Rev 2004; 25:115.,15、World Health Organization. Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children, 2001. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf (Accessed on August 31, 2011).,17、Gadomski A, Horton L. The need for rational therapeutics in the use of cough and cold medicine in infants. Pediatrics 1992; 89:774.]。

●维持充分补液–维持充分补液可能有助于稀释分泌物,并舒缓

呼吸道黏膜[参考文献15、World Health Organization. Cough and

cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in

young children,2001.

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf

(Accessed on August 31, 2011).]。

●摄入温热的流质–摄入温热的流质(如,茶、鸡汤)可能对呼吸

道黏膜有舒缓作用,可促进鼻腔黏液流出(也可能是由吸入蒸汽

所介导),还可松解呼吸道分泌物从而促进其排出[参考文献14、

Saketkhoo K, Januszkiewicz A, Sackner MA. Effects of drinking hot

water, cold water, and chicken soup on nasal mucus velocity and

nasal airflow resistance. Chest 1978; 74:408.15、World Health

Organization. Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute

respiratory infections in young children, 2001.

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf 

(Accessed on August 31, 2011).18、Sanu A, Eccles R. The effects of

a hot drink on nasal airflow and symptoms of common cold and flu.

Rhinology 2008; 46:271]。摄入的温热流质应该与婴儿或儿童的

年龄相符。(参见“婴儿期的固体辅食添加以及维生素和矿物质

补充”,关于‘何时开始添加辅食’一节和“幼儿、学龄前儿童

和学龄儿童的膳食推荐”,关于‘膳食指南’一节)

●局部用盐水–局部用盐水价格低廉,可能有益,并且不太可能

有害或妨碍患儿恢复。将盐水用于鼻腔可暂时去除令患儿烦扰的

鼻分泌物,改善黏液纤毛清除功能,并引起血管收缩(减充血)[参

考文献19、Achilles N, Mösges R. Nasal saline irrigations for the

symptoms of acute and chronic rhinosinusitis. Curr Allergy Asthma

Rep 2013; 13:229.]。其副作用可能包括黏膜刺激或鼻出血。

对于婴儿,可使用盐水滴鼻剂和球形注射器来给予局部用盐水。对于年龄较大的儿童,可使用盐水鼻喷雾剂或盐水鼻冲洗(如挤瓶、洗鼻壶或洗鼻器)。盐水冲洗液应使用无菌水或瓶装水配置,这一点非常重要;有研究已报道了自来水配置的鼻腔冲洗液引起阿米巴性脑炎的病例[参考文献20、Yoder JS, Straif-Bourgeois S, Roy SL, et al. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis deaths associated with sinus irrigation using contaminated tap water. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55:e79.]。美国CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)提供了安全的鼻腔冲洗方法的相关信息。

2015年的一项系统评价分析了5项随机试验,共544例儿童和205例成人,发现鼻腔盐水冲洗可能有益于缓解上呼吸道感染症状[参考文献21、King D, Mitchell B, Williams CP, Spurling GK. Saline nasal irrigation for acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; :CD006821.]。由于不同研究的结局指标不同,该meta分析未能对结果进行汇总分析。在规模最大的那项试验中,鼻腔盐水冲洗轻度改善了症状,并减少了其他治疗的使用、症状复发和缺课的时间[参考文献22、Slapak I, Skoupá J, Strnad P, Horník P. Efficacy of isotonic nasal wash (seawater) in the treatment and prevention of rhinitis in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008; 134:67.]。

●加湿空气–冷雾加湿器/喷雾器可增加空气湿度,从而松解鼻

腔分泌物,但这种治疗方法尚未得到充分研究[参考文献16、

Parental instruction sheets. The common cold. In: Textbook of

Pediatric Emergency Medicine, 6th, Fleisher GR, Ludwig S (Eds),

Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2010. p.1894.,23、

American Academy of Pediatrics. Caring for a child

withaviralinfection.

http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/ear-

nose-throat/pages/Caring-for-a-Child-with-a-Viral-Infection.aspx

(Accessed on August 31, 2011).24、Fischer H. Common cold. In:

American Academy of Pediatrics Textbook of Pediatric Care,

McInerny TK (Ed), American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove

Village, IL 2009. p.1934.]。应告知照料者,每次使用冷雾加湿器

后都要按照生产商的说明做好清洁工作,从而最大程度降低感染

或吸入损伤的风险,这一点非常重要[参考文献25、Joly JR, Déry

P, Gauvreau L, et al. Legionnaires' disease caused by Legionella

dumoffii in distilled water. CMAJ 1986; 135:1274.26、Daftary AS,

Deterding RR. Inhalational lung injury associated with humidifier

"white dust". Pediatrics 2011; 127:e509.27、Volpe BT, Sulavik SB,

Tran P, Apter A. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis associated with a

portable home humidifier. Conn Med 1991; 55:571.]。

对于普通感冒患儿,我们不推荐将吸入蒸汽或加热加湿的空气用作治疗鼻部症状的方法。吸入加热加湿空气或蒸汽并不会减少症状,可能还会引起烧伤[参考文献28、Ebrahim MK, Bang RL, Lari AR. Scald accidents during water aerosol inhalation in infants. Burns 1990; 16:291.]。

2017年的一项系统评价分析了6项随机试验,共387例参与者,评估了吸入加热加湿空气对普通感冒症状的影响;分析发现,该方法的益处并不一致[参考文献29、Singh M, Singh M, Jaiswal N, Chauhan A. Heated, humidified air for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 8:CD001728.]。上述系统评价中未分析的一项随机试验纳入了899例患者(≥3岁),发现建议吸入蒸汽并未减少急性呼吸道感染症状[参考文献30、Little P, Moore M, Kelly J, et al. Ibuprofen, paracetamol, and steam for patients with respiratory tract infections in primary care: pragmatic randomised factorial trial. BMJ 2013; 347:f6041]。

WHO建议,不鼓励将蒸汽或冷雾治疗用于处理咳嗽或感冒[参考文献15、World Health Organization. Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children, 2001. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf (Accessed on August 31, 2011).]。

非处方药物 — 用于缓解儿童普通感冒症状的非处方

(over-the-counter, OTC)产品包括抗组胺药、减充血剂、止咳药、

祛痰剂、黏液溶解药物、退热剂/镇痛剂,以及这些药物的复方

药物。

● <6岁的儿童–除了退热剂/镇痛剂之外,应避免对<6岁的儿童

使用OTC药物治疗普通感冒[参考文献31、US Food and Drug Administration. Public Health Advisory. Nonprescription cough and cold medicine use in children. FDA recommends that over-the-counter (OTC) cough and cold products not be used for infants and children under 2 years of age. www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/PublicHealthAdvisories/UCM051137 (Accessed on August 31, 2011).32、Sharfstein JM, North M, Serwint JR. Over the counter but no longer under the radar--pediatric cough and cold medications. N Engl J Med 2007; 357:2321.33、American Academy of Pediatrics. Withdrawal of cold medicines: Addressing parent concerns. http://practice.aap.org/content.aspx?aid=2254 (Accessed on August 23, 2011)]。

●6-12–除了退热剂/镇痛剂之外,我们建议不要将治疗普通

感冒的OTC药物用于6-12岁的儿童。

●≥12岁的青少年–对于≥12岁的青少年,OTC减充血剂可缓

解鼻部症状。

● 随机试验、系统评价以及meta分析均未证明OTC药物用于

儿童时比安慰剂更有效,并且可能会产生严重的副作用[参考文献34、Smith MB, Feldman W. Over-the-counter cold medications. A critical review of clinical trials between 1950 and 1991. JAMA 1993; 269:2258.35、Paul IM, Yoder KE, Crowell KR, et al. Effect of dextromethorphan, diphenhydramine, and placebo on nocturnal cough and sleep quality for coughing children and their parents. Pediatrics 2004; 114:e85.36、Schroeder K, Fahey T. Should we advise parents to administer over the counter cough medicines for acute cough? Systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Arch Dis Child 2002; 86:170.37、Hutton N, Wilson MH, Mellits ED, et al. Effectiveness of an antihistamine-decongestant combination for young children with the common cold: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Pediatr 1991; 118:125.38、Clemens CJ, Taylor JA, Almquist JR, et al. Is an antihistamine-decongestant combination effective in temporarily relieving symptoms of the common cold in preschool children? J Pediatr 1997; 130:463.39、Taylor JA, Novack AH, Almquist JR, Rogers JE. Efficacy of cough suppressants in children. J Pediatr 1993; 122:799.40、Paul IM, Beiler J, McMonagle A, et al. Effect of honey, dextromethorphan, and no treatment on nocturnal cough and sleep quality for coughing children and their parents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007; 161:1140.41、Smith SM, Schroeder K, Fahey T. Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and adults in community settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; :CD001831.42、Nordt SP, Vivero LE, Cantrell FL. Not Just a Drop in the Bucket-Inversion of Oxymetazoline Nasal Decongestant Container Increases Potential for Severe Pediatric Poisoning. J Pediatr 2016; 168:240.43、Deckx L, De Sutter AI, Guo L, et al. Nasal decongestants in monotherapy for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 10:CD009612.]。人们已发现,在小于2岁的儿童中,OTC咳嗽和感冒药物使用过量时可能致命[参考文献44、Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Infant deaths associated with cough and cold medications--two states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:1.45、Dart RC, Paul IM, Bond GR, et al. Pediatric fatalities associated with over the counter (nonprescription) cough and cold medications. Ann Emerg Med 2009; 53:411.46、Gunn VL, Taha SH, Liebelt EL, Serwint JR. Toxicity of over-the-counter cough and cold medications. Pediatrics 2001; 108:E52.47、Green JL, Wang GS, Reynolds KM, et al. Safety Profile of Cough and Cold Medication Use in Pediatrics. Pediatrics 2017; 139.]。由于代谢、清除和作用可能会根据年龄不同而发生改变,故OTC药物用于幼儿时毒性可能会更强。研究者们尚未制定针对儿童的安全剂量推荐[参考文献17、Gadomski A, Horton L. The need for rational therapeutics in the use of cough and cold medicine in infants. Pediatrics 1992; 89:774.]。

●对于>6岁的儿童,如果父母选择使用OTC药物来治疗普通

感冒,则应建议其使用单一成分药物治疗最令人烦扰的症状,并为其提供正确剂量、储存和给药的指导,以避免可能的药物毒性[参考文献17、Gadomski A, Horton L. The need for rational therapeutics in the use of cough and cold medicine in infants. Pediatrics 1992; 89:774.]。例如,在使用鼻内药物时,如果未正置容器给药而是倒置给药,则给出的药物剂量可能会是推荐剂量的20-30倍[参考文献42、Nordt SP, Vivero LE, Cantrell FL. Not Just a Drop in the Bucket-Inversion of Oxymetazoline Nasal Decongestant Container Increases Potential for Severe Pediatric Poisoning. J Pediatr 2016; 168:240.]。与所有药物一样,OTC咳嗽和感冒药物也应放置于儿童接触不到之处。儿童咳嗽和感冒安全性监测系统(Pediatric Cough and Cold Safety Surveillance System) 2009-2014年的数据表明,在<12岁的儿童中,约2/3的OTC咳嗽和感冒药物相关不良事件与儿童在非监管下意外摄入有关[参考文献47、Green JL, Wang GS, Reynolds KM, et al. Safety Profile of Cough and Cold Medication Use in Pediatrics. Pediatrics 2017; 139.]。

对症治疗 — 普通感冒的症状无需治疗,除非其对患儿或其他家庭成员造成影响,如干扰睡眠、妨碍饮水、引起不适[参考文献48、American Academy of Pediatrics. Coughs and colds: Medicines or homeremedies? http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/ear-nose-throat/pages/Coughs-and-Colds-Medicines-or-Home-Remedies.aspx (Accessed on August 23, 2011).]。对症治疗有其相应的风险和益处,特别是用于年幼儿童时。

●发热引起的不适 — 我们建议,对于普通感冒最初几日中由发热引起的不适,使用对乙酰氨基酚(大于3个月的儿童)或布洛芬(大于6个月的儿童)进行治疗[参考文献49、Kim SY, Chang YJ, Cho HM, et al. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; :CD006362.]。

当建议使用退热药和镇痛药时,应提醒照料者不要同时使用复方OTC药物,以避免使用多种含有相同成分(如对乙酰氨基酚)的药物引起药物过量。

●鼻部症状 — 鼻部症状包括鼻炎,以及鼻充血/鼻塞。鼻塞可影响饮水,并可能是婴幼儿普通感冒最令人烦恼的症状[参考文献13、Kelly LF. Pediatric cough and cold preparations. Pediatr Rev 2004; 25:115.]。

对于令人烦扰的鼻部症状,在选择一线治疗时,我们建议使用1种或多种支持性干预措施(如,鼻腔吸引;盐水滴鼻、喷鼻或冲洗;充分补液;冷雾加湿器),而不是使用OTC药物或局部用芳香治疗。虽然支持性干预措施尚未在随机试验中证实有效,但普通感冒是一种自限性疾病,而且支持性干预措施安全而廉价[参考文献17、Gadomski A, Horton L. The need for rational therapeutics in the use of cough and cold medicine in infants. Pediatrics 1992; 89:774.]。

对于令人烦扰的鼻部症状,如果支持治疗未能带来改善,我们根据患儿年龄给予如下二线干预措施:

●<6–对于<6岁的患儿,如果令人烦扰的鼻部症状在采取支

持性干预措施后仍持续存在,我们一般建议提高鼻腔吸引、喷雾

或冲洗的频率。我们不会对<6岁的儿童使用OTC药物治疗鼻部

症状。这类药物的益处尚未得到证实,且可能有相应的风险。

目前已有可用于5岁以上儿童的0.06%异丙托胺鼻喷雾剂处方药,可根据患儿的具体情况开具。使用该药时,每次每侧鼻孔给予2喷,一日3次,持续4日。

●6-12–对于6-12岁的儿童,如果支持性干预措施未能改善

令人烦扰的鼻部症状,我们一般建议提高鼻腔吸引、喷雾或冲洗

的频率,而不是采取其他干预措施。我们建议不要使用OTC减

充血剂,或是减充血剂/抗组胺药复方药物。其益处尚未得到证

实,且可能有相应风险[参考文献43、Deckx L, De Sutter AI, Guo

L, et al. Nasal decongestants in monotherapy for the common cold.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 10:CD009612.]。目前已有异丙

托胺鼻喷雾剂处方药,可根据患儿的具体情况开具。

●具体的方案依据患儿的年龄而异:

•6-11–0.06%的异丙托胺鼻喷雾剂,每次每侧鼻孔2喷,一 3次,持续4日。

•≥12–0.06%的异丙托胺鼻喷雾剂,每次每侧鼻孔2喷,一日3-4次,持续4日。

一项系统评价分析了7项随机试验,这些试验在成人和≥5岁的儿童中将安慰剂与异丙托胺鼻喷雾剂进行了比较;分析发现,异丙托胺可有效减少主观鼻分泌物,但不能改善鼻充血[参考文献50、AlBalawi ZH, Othman SS, Alfaleh K. Intranasal ipratropium bromide for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; :CD008231.]。异丙托胺组的不良反应约为安慰剂组的2-4倍,如鼻出血、鼻干燥、口干。

● ≥12–对于≥12岁的患儿,如果支持性干预措施未能改

令人烦扰的鼻部症状,我们就建议予以OTC减充血剂(口服或

局部用),或是异丙托胺鼻喷雾剂。

口服或局部用减充血剂可使鼻黏膜血管收缩。

•与去氧肾上腺素和其他口服OTC鼻减充血剂相比,我们偏好使用口服伪麻黄碱。口服减充血剂的副作用可能包括心动过速、舒张压升高以及心悸[参考文献51、Morales-Carpi C, Torres-Chazarra C, Lurbe E, et al. Cold medication containing oral phenylephrine as a cause of hypertension in children. Eur J Pediatr 2008; 167:947]。

•常用的局部用减充血剂包括羟甲唑啉、赛洛唑啉和去氧肾上  腺素[参考文献1、Pappas DE, Hendley JO. The common cold and decongestant therapy. Pediatr Rev 2011; 32:47]。局部用减充血剂的副作用包括鼻出血和鼻黏膜干燥。局部用减充血剂只能使用2-3日,否则停药后可能出现反跳性鼻充血[参考文献1、Pappas DE, Hendley JO. The common cold and decongestant therapy. Pediatr Rev 2011; 32:4713、Kelly LF. Pediatric cough and cold preparations. Pediatr Rev 2004; 25:115]。

一项2016年的系统评价发现了低质量的证据,表明多剂口服和/或局部用减充血剂用于成人时可主观上改善鼻充血[参考文献52、Hao Q, Dong BR, Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; :CD006895.]。尚没有研究直接比较口服减充血剂与局部用减充血剂。在纳入过敏性鼻炎成人患者的随机试验中,就减少鼻充血而言,口服伪麻黄碱比去氧肾上腺素或安慰剂更有效,而去氧肾上腺素则并不比安慰剂更有效[参考文献53、Meltzer EO, Ratner PH, McGraw T. Oral Phenylephrine HCl for Nasal Congestion in Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis: A Randomized, Open-label, Placebo-controlled Study. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2015; 3:702.54、Meltzer EO, Ratner PH, McGraw T. Phenylephrine hydrochloride modified-release tablets for nasal congestion: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in allergic rhinitis patients. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2016; 116:66.55、Horak F, Zieglmayer P,  Zieglmayer R, et al. A placebo-controlled study of the nasal decongestant effect of phenylephrine and pseudoephedrine in the Vienna Challenge Chamber. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2009; 102:116.]。

对于接受二线干预措施后鼻部症状仍持续存在或加重的患儿,应考虑普通感冒以外的诊断。

●中耳异常 — 对于有中耳异常症状(如传导性听力损失)的普通

感冒患儿,我们不建议使用减充血剂或减充血剂-抗组胺药复方

药物。虽然普通感冒相关的中耳压力异常可能会使患者容易发生

急性中耳炎,但一项前瞻性交叉研究发现,减充血剂-抗组胺药

复方药物治疗并未防止患者发生急性中耳炎[参考文献65、

Randall JE, Hendley JO. A decongestant-antihistamine mixture in

the prevention of otitis media in children with colds. Pediatrics 1979;

63:483.]。

★持续性症状

●持续性鼻部症状–当儿童有鼻分泌物,且持续时间或严重程度超出了普通感冒的预期时间或严重程度时(如,持续超过10日,且没有改善或正在加重),就应考虑普通感冒以外的诊断。

其他诊断包括:

•鼻腔异物(参见“鼻内异物的诊断与处理”)

•过敏性鼻炎、非过敏性鼻炎、药物性鼻炎(参见“鼻炎概述”)

•急性细菌性鼻窦炎(参见“儿童急性细菌性鼻-鼻窦炎:临床特点  和诊断”)

●持续咳嗽–当儿童咳嗽,且持续时间或严重程度超出了普通感

冒的预期时间或严重程度时(如,持续超过2周,且没有改善或

正在加重),就应考虑普通感冒以外的其他诊断[参考文献64、Carr

BC. Efficacy, abuse, and toxicity of over-the-counter cough and cold

medicines in the pediatric population. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006;

18:184.],包括肺炎、哮喘、百日咳、囊性纤维化和吸入异物等。

未经证实的治疗方法

抗生素–抗生素对普通感冒的治疗并无作用[参考文献6、

Shields MD, Bush A, Everard ML, et al. BTS guidelines:

Recommendations for the assessment and management of cough in

children. Thorax 2008; 63 Suppl 3:iii1]。抗生素不会改变普通感冒

的病程,也不能预防继发的并发症,但却有可能引起严重的副作

用,并促进细菌对抗生素的耐药性增强[参考文献66、Kenealy T,

Arroll B. Antibiotics for the common cold and acute purulent

rhinitis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; :CD000247.]。抗生素应

只能用于明确诊断为继发细菌感染的患者,包括细菌性中耳炎、

鼻窦炎和肺炎。

●抗组胺药–我们不建议将抗组胺药用于治疗普通感冒。在随机

试验中,抗组胺药和抗组胺药-减充血剂复方药物均不能有效缓

解普通感冒患儿的鼻部症状或咳嗽[参考文献35、Paul IM, Yoder

KE, Crowell KR, et al. Effect of dextromethorphan,

diphenhydramine, and placebo on nocturnal cough and sleep quality

for coughing children and their parents. Pediatrics 2004; 114:e8537、

Hutton N, Wilson MH, Mellits ED, et al. Effectiveness of an

antihistamine-decongestant combination for young children with the

common cold: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Pediatr 1991;

118:125.,38、Clemens CJ, Taylor JA, Almquist JR, et al. Is an

antihistamine-decongestant combination effective in temporarily

relieving symptoms of the common cold in preschool children? J

Pediatr 1997; 130:46367、De Sutter AI, Saraswat A, van Driel ML.

Antihistamines for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev

2015; :CD009345.],并且这些药物还可能引起不良反应,包括镇

静、反常性兴奋、呼吸抑制和幻觉。

吸入性糖皮质激素–我们不建议将鼻内糖皮质激素用于治疗

普通感冒的鼻部症状。一项2015年的系统评价分析了3项试验,

共353例参与者,发现该方法并无益处[参考文献68、Hayward G,

Thompson MJ, Perera R, et al. Corticosteroids for the common cold.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; :CD008116.]。

止咳药–我们不建议将处方止咳药可待因或OTC止咳药右美

沙芬用于治疗普通感冒患儿的咳嗽。这类药物的效果尚未得到证

实,并且有毒性增强的可能性[参考文献3、Use of codeine- and

dextromethorphan-containing cough remedies in children. American

Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 1997;

99:91835、Paul IM, Yoder KE, Crowell KR, et al. Effect of

dextromethorphan, diphenhydramine, and placebo on nocturnal

cough and sleep quality for coughing children and their parents.

Pediatrics 2004; 114:e85.39、Taylor JA, Novack AH, Almquist JR,

Rogers JE. Efficacy of cough suppressants in children. J Pediatr

1993; 122:799.44、Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC). Infant deaths associated with cough and cold

medications--two states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep

2007; 56:1.63、European Medicines Agency. Codeine-containing

medicinal products for the treatment of cough or cold in paediatric

patients.

http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/hum

an/referrals/Codeine_containing_medicinal_products_for_the_treat

ment_of_cough_and_cold_in_paediatric_patients/human_referral_pr

ac_000039.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac05805c516f (Accessed on July 01,

2015)69、US Food and Drug Administration. Codeine

cough-and-cold medicines in children: Drug safety communication –

FDA evaluating potential risk of serious side effects.

http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAler

tsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm453379.htm (Accessed on July 01,

2015).]。

AAP推荐不要将含有可待因和右美沙芬的药物用于治疗病毒性呼吸道感染相关的咳嗽,因为尚没有对照良好的研究证实其有效性和安全性[参考文献3、Use of codeine- and dextromethorphan-containing cough remedies in children. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 1997; 99:918.61、Tobias JD, Green TP, Coté CJ, et al. Codeine: Time to Say "No". Pediatrics 2016; 138.]。美国FDA推荐不要将含有可待因或氢可酮的处方咳嗽和感冒药用于年龄小于18岁的儿童和青少年[参考文献62、US Food and Drug Administrtion. Prescription opioid cough and cold medicines: Drug safety communication -- FDA requires labeling changes. January 2018. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm592053.htm (Accessed on January 11, 2018).]。

祛痰剂和黏液溶解药物–我们不建议将OTC祛痰剂(如愈创甘

油醚)或黏液溶解药物(如,乙酰半胱氨酸、溴己新、来托司坦)

用于治疗普通感冒患儿的咳嗽。祛痰剂可增加黏液产生,黏液溶

解药物则能稀释呼吸道分泌物,因此这两种药物可使分泌物更容

易排出[参考文献41、Smith SM, Schroeder K, Fahey T.

Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and

adults in community settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev

2014; :CD001831.]。祛痰剂和黏液溶解药物在儿童中均没有已证

实的获益[13、Kelly LF. Pediatric cough and cold preparations.

Pediatr Rev 2004; 25:115.15、World Health Organization. Cough and

cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in

young children, 2001.  

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf 

(Accessed on August 31, 2011)41、Smith SM, Schroeder K, Fahey T.

Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and

adults in community settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev

2014; :CD001831.]。愈创甘油醚单独使用时本身是安全的,仅引

起轻度的胃肠道刺激,但在OTC药品中,愈创甘油醚通常复合

有其他成分[参考文献64、Carr BC. Efficacy, abuse, and toxicity of

over-the-counter cough and cold medicines in the pediatric

population. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006; 18:184.]。黏液溶解药物的不

良反应包括支气管痉挛、胃肠道功能紊乱和发热[参考文献15、

World Health Organization. Cough and cold remedies for the

treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children, 2001.

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_FCH_CAH_01.02.pdf 

(Accessed on August 31, 2011)]。

支气管扩张剂–我们不建议将支气管扩张剂用于治疗无哮喘

的普通感冒患儿的咳嗽。在用于非哮喘患儿的急性咳嗽时,支气

管扩张剂无效[参考文献6、Shields MD, Bush A, Everard ML, et al.

BTS guidelines: Recommendations for the assessment and

management of cough in children. Thorax 2008; 63 Suppl 3:iii170、

Bernard DW, Goepp JG, Duggan AK, et al. Is oral albuterol effective

for acute cough in non-asthmatic children? Acta Paediatr 1999;

88:465.71、Smucny JJ, Flynn CA, Becker LA, Glazier RH. Are

beta2-agonists effective treatment for acute bronchitis or acute

cough in patients without underlying pulmonary disease? A

ystematic review. J Fam Pract 2001; 50:945.]。然而,对于发生感

冒的哮喘患儿,应根据其哮喘行动计划按需使用支气管扩张急救

药。

★挥发性芳香剂(用于外部揉搽)–我们不建议将局部用芳香剂/

外用搽剂(如薄荷脑、樟脑、桉油)用于治疗普通感冒患儿的鼻充

血或咳嗽。

一项随机交叉试验在42例健康学龄儿童中比较了薄荷脑和桉油,发现薄荷脑增加了鼻腔通畅感,但并未影响肺量计检查结果 [参考文献72、Kenia P, Houghton T, Beardsmore C. Does inhaling menthol affect nasal patency or cough? Pediatr Pulmonol 2008; 43:532.。

另一项随机试验将挥发性搽剂复方药物(薄荷脑、樟脑和桉油)与凡士林和不予以治疗进行了对比,发现挥发性搽剂对鼻溢无效,但可减少咳嗽的严重程度,改善患儿及其父母的睡眠,并减少合并症状评分;所有的结局都由患儿的父母报告[参考文献73、Paul IM, Beiler JS, King TS, et al. Vapor rub, petrolatum, and no treatment for children with nocturnal cough and cold symptoms. Pediatrics 2010; 126:1092.]。在接近一半的儿童中,挥发性搽剂复方药物引起至少1种轻度刺激效应。由于这项研究未能较好地采用盲法(在使用挥发性搽剂的患儿中,有86%的父母正确地猜到了患儿正在使用挥发性搽剂),不能排除有显著安慰剂效应的可能性[参考文献74、Eccles R. Importance of placebo effect in cough clinical trials. Lung 2010; 188 Suppl 1:S53]。此外,父母报告的咳嗽必须谨慎解读;与客观测量相比,父母报告的咳嗽频率及严重程度并不可靠[参考文献75、Archer LN, Simpson H. Night cough counts and diary card scores in asthma. Arch Dis Child 1985; 60:473.76、Chang AB, Newman RG, Carlin JB, et al. Subjective scoring of cough in children: parent-completed vs child-completed diary cards vs an objective method. Eur Respir J 1998; 11:462.77、Falconer A, Oldman C, Helms P. Poor agreement between reported and recorded nocturnal cough in asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol 1993; 15:209.]。

★维生素、矿物质和草药制品

•维生素C–我们建议不将维生素C用于治疗普通感冒患儿。2013年的一项meta分析对随机试验进行了探讨,发现感冒症状出现后开始应用维生素C(≥200mg/d)并不能减少症状的持续时间(7项试验,3249次感冒发作)或严重程度(4项试验,2708次感冒发作)[参考文献78、Hemilä H, Chalker E. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; :CD000980.]。未报道严重的不良反应。

•锌–我们建议不将锌用于治疗普通感冒患儿。用于儿童时,锌减少感冒症状持续时间或严重程度的效果尚不明确,并且副作用常见[参考文献79、Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, et al. Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2012; 184:E551.]。

虽然有几项系统评价分析了随机试验,表明锌或许能缩短感冒症状的持续时间,但是各试验之间存在显著的异质性[参考文献79、Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, et al. Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2012; 184:E551.,80、Hemilä H. Zinc lozenges may shorten the duration of colds: a systematic review. Open Respir Med J 2011; 5:51.]。2012年的一项系统评价和meta分析纳入了8项试验,共934名参与者(371名成人,563名儿童)。分析发现,锌可减少症状的持续时间(均数差值 -1.65日;95%CI -2.5至-0.8)[参考文献79、Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, et al. Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2012; 184:E551.]。亚组分析发现,锌可缩短成人的症状持续时间(均数差值 -2.63日;95%CI -3.69至-1.58),但不能缩短儿童的症状持续时间(均数差值 -0.26日;95%CI -0.78至0.25)。不同锌制剂的效果有差异(醋酸锌有效,葡萄糖酸锌和硫酸锌则无效),并且不同锌离子剂量的效果也有差异(与较低剂量相比,剂量≥75mg时更有效)。不良反应常见,包括味道不佳和恶心,可能导致锌在儿童中的作用受限[参考文献79、Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, et al. Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2012; 184:E551.,81、Macknin ML, Piedmonte M, Calendine C, et al. Zinc gluconate lozenges for treating the common cold in children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998; 279:1962.]。

•锌鼻用制剂(包括用于顺势疗法的鼻腔内葡萄糖酸锌)与长期性

或者永久性嗅觉丧失有关,不推荐用于儿童[参考文献82、FDA

MedWatch. Zicam cold remedy nasal products (Cold Remedy Nasal

Gel, Cold Remedy Nasal Swabs, and Cold Remedy Swabs, Kids

Size).

www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforH

umanMedicalProducts/ucm166996.htm (Accessed on August 30,

2011).83、

http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm166931.ht

m (Accessed on April 04, 2011).84、Davidson TM, Smith WM. The

Bradford Hill criteria and zinc-induced anosmia: a causality analysis.

Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010; 136:673.]。

•松果菊–我们建议不使用松果菊(Echinacea purpurea)治疗普通感冒患儿。数项严格设计的随机试验和一项纳入了随机试验的meta分析发现,松果菊用于治疗成人URI时并不优于安慰剂[参考文献85、Turner RB, Bauer R, Woelkart K, et al. An evaluation of Echinacea angustifolia in experimental rhinovirus infections. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:341.86、Yale SH, Liu K. Echinacea purpurea therapy for the treatment of the common cold: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:1237.87、Barrett B, Brown R, Rakel D, et al. Echinacea for treating the common cold: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2010; 153:769.88、Karsch-Völk M, Barrett B, Kiefer D, et al. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; :CD000530.]。同样,一项在儿童中(2-11岁)进行的随机试验发现,接受松果菊治疗的儿童与接受安慰剂治疗的儿童相比,URI症状的持续时间和严重程度并无差异[参考文献89、Taylor JA, Weber W, Standish L, et al. Efficacy and safety of echinacea in treating upper respiratory tract infections in children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290:2824.]。然而,接受松果菊治疗的儿童中皮疹发生率增高(7% vs 2.7%)。

•狭花天竺葵(又名南非天竺葵或Umckaloabo)提取物–我们建议

不使用狭花天竺葵(Pelargonium sidoides)提取物治疗普通感冒患

儿。虽然一项系统评价发现一项研究提示该物质持续使用10日

在成人中有效,但证据的质量非常低[参考文献90、Timmer A,

Günther J, Motschall E, et al. Pelargonium sidoides extract for

treating acute respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst

Rev 2013; :CD006323.。狭花天竺葵用于儿童的安全性证据有限。

有研究者汇总分析了评估狭花天竺葵治疗急性呼吸系统感染的

试验,发现接受狭花天竺葵的患者中不良事件罕有报道,但稍多

于接受安慰剂的患者中。

★预防

●儿童看护机构及学校 — 大多数的感冒患儿不需要暂时离开儿童看护机构或学校,因为在患儿出现感冒症状之前可能就已经发生了传播[参考文献91、American Academy of Pediatrics. Management and prevention of infectious diseases. In: Red Book: 2018 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 31st ed, Kimberlin DW, Brady MT, Jackson MA, Long SS (Eds), American Academy of Pediatrics, Itasca, IL 2018. p.125.]。可以通过下列常识性预防措施来降低传播的风险,见下文的讨论。

●卫生 — 预防普通感冒传播最好的方法为勤洗手,以及避免用手接触口、鼻和眼睛。观察性研究发现,酒精洗手液和手部杀病毒处理(如碘、水杨酸、焦谷氨酸)可以减少传播[参考文献92、Lee GM, Salomon JA, Friedman JF, et al. Illness transmission in the home: a possible role for alcohol-based hand gels. Pediatrics 2005; 115:852.93、Sandora TJ, Taveras EM, Shih MC, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of a multifaceted intervention including alcohol-based hand sanitizer and hand-hygiene education to reduce illness transmission in the home. Pediatrics 2005; 116:587.]。

感冒病毒可以通过手传播到环境中的物体,或传播给其他人。为了避免污染到手,可以指导普通感冒患儿对着纸巾或肘弯处咳嗽,而非对着自己的手。用过的纸巾应丢弃于废纸篓中。

●消毒剂 — 使用杀病毒的消毒剂去除环境表面的污染可能有助于降低感冒病毒的传播率,如使用苯酚/酒精(例如Lysol)[参考文献95、Gwaltney JM Jr, Hendley JO. Transmission of experimental rhinovirus infection by contaminated surfaces. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116:828.]。浸有杀病毒成分的鼻用纸巾或许也能减少感冒病毒传播[参考文献96、Dick EC, Hossain SU, Mink KA, et al. Interruption of transmission of rhinovirus colds among human volunteers using virucidal paper handkerchiefs. J Infect Dis 1986; 153:352.97、Farr BM, Hendley JO, Kaiser DL, Gwaltney JM. Two randomized controlled trials of virucidal nasal tissues in the prevention of natural upper respiratory infections. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128:1162.98、Longini IM Jr, Monto AS. Efficacy of virucidal nasal tissues in interrupting familial transmission of respiratory agents. A field trial in Tecumseh, Michigan. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128:639.]。

一项随机试验在至少有1名学龄前儿童的家庭中将具有抗菌作用的清洁产品与标准清洁产品进行了比较,发现家庭成员的呼吸道症状(流鼻涕、咳嗽、咽喉痛)并无差别[参考文献99、Larson EL, Lin SX, Gomez-Pichardo C, Della-Latta P. Effect of antibacterial home cleaning and handwashing products on infectious disease symptoms: a randomized, double-blind trial. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140:321.]。然而,预计抗菌产品不一定有抗病毒活性。

●免疫接种 — 目前没有免疫接种可以预防普通感冒。然而,对于某些引起与普通感冒类似的临床综合征的病毒,已有免疫接种可用于预防。

对于所有6月龄以上的个体,均推荐每年接种流感疫苗,以预防流感病毒感染及其并发症。

对于高危婴儿,推荐每月注射1次帕利佐单抗(一种单克隆抗体制剂),以预防呼吸道合胞病毒(respiratory syncytial virus, RSV)引起的URI。使用帕利佐单抗预防RSV的相关内容将单独讨论。

未得到证实的预防措施 — 我们不建议将草药制品、维生素、矿物质或益生菌用于预防儿童普通感冒。这些物质的作用尚未得到证实,且可能有害。

●草药制品–meta分析并未发现松果菊或蒜(Allium sativum)能预防儿童普通感冒的确切证据[参考文献88、Karsch-Völk M, Barrett B, Kiefer D, et al. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; :CD000530.100、Lissiman E, Bhasale AL, Cohen M. Garlic for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; :CD006206.]。

●维生素D–在随机试验中,无论每月还是每日给予维生素D,均未降低普通感冒的发病率或严重程度。

●维生素C–2013年的一项meta分析纳入了24项试验,共10,708例参与者,未能发现每日补充维生素C可在一般群体中预防普通感冒的证据(RR 0.97,95%CI 0.94-1.00)[参考文献78、Hemilä H, Chalker E. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; :CD000980.]。然而,每日补充维生素C或可缩短儿童普通感冒的持续时间。一项meta分析纳入了14项试验(2530次感冒发作),发现儿童每日补充维生素C(至少200mg/d)可将普通感冒的持续时间缩短14%(95%CI 7.3%-21%);未报告严重的不良反应。

 

●锌–虽然随机试验表明,在预防感冒以及减少感冒的严重程度和持续时间方面,口服锌有一定作用[参考文献101、Kurugöl Z, Akilli M, Bayram N, Koturoglu G. The prophylactic and therapeutic effectiveness of zinc sulphate on common cold in children. Acta Paediatr 2006; 95:1175.

102、Vakili R, Vahedian M, Khodaei GH, Mahmoudi M. Effects of zinc supplementation in occurrence and duration of common cold in school aged children during cold season: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Iran J Pediatr 2009; 19:376.],但需要长期每日给药(≥5个月),并且还有味道不佳和恶心等不良反应,这限制了该药的益处。

 ●益生菌–我们不建议将益生菌用于预防儿童感冒。2015年的一项meta分析纳入了12项在成人和儿童中进行的随机试验,发现了低质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,益生菌[多种乳酸菌和双歧杆菌(Bifidobacterium)菌株]减少了急性呼吸道感染次数≥1次的患者数(OR 0.53;95%CI 0.37-0.76),并缩短了疾病的平均持续时间(均数差值1.89日;95%CI 1.75-2.03)[参考文献52、Hao Q, Dong BR, Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; :CD006895.]。尚需要其他研究来证实这些结果,并确定最佳的剂量和菌株,之后才能够推荐常规使用益生菌。


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